India-Pakistan Mission Study Glossary: A-P
Definitions are from the India and Pakistan Mission Study Guide unless otherwise noted.
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Ashram - In Sanskrit it means "toil, penance, or austerity." In Hinduism, it denotes the secluded residence of a religious community and its spiritual leader. The Christian Ashram is a unique retreat that is Christ-centered and is a time apart for physical and spiritual renewal in the context of Christian love and caring.
E. Stanley Jones, or "Brother Stanley" as he was known, searched for a method to introduce Christ to the people of India, particularly educated Hindus, in a way that they could understand and embrace. Since 1930, the Christian Ashram movement has grown to include 100 ashrams across India as well as in 38 other countries around the world.
To learn more, read the news story Sat Tal Christian Ashram Celebrates 70th Anniversary from the General Board of Global Ministries or the United Christian Ashrams web site.
Baghavat Gita - The Hindu scripture, "The Song of the Adorable One."
A story of a war between bad guys and good guys, in which a Hindu god directs a distraught warrior-prince in the war.
Today, mainstream Hindus read it as a spiritual struggle between the good and evil in one's soul; those who interpret the text more narrowly view it as endorsing war and ethnic cleansing in the land.
Brahman (BRAAH man) - A major Hindu concept of God which emerged during the Vedic Age (1000-600 B.C.E.). The Brahman is the Absolute, the Ultimate Reality, or the World Soul.
The World Soul is in all things present, in all aspects of nature, and also present in the human soul. The divine essence of the human soul is identical with the World Soul.
In Brahman, all contradictions merge: emptiness and fullness, positives and negatives exist as two sides of the same coin. All dualities are non-existent.
In this concept of God, the World Soul is not responsible for good and evil.
(Brahman should not be confused with Brahmin, one of the castes in Indian social hierarchy.)
Buddhism - Started as a movement of reform against the caste system and the domination of Brahmins in the practices of Hinduism in the sixth century B.C.E.
The essence of Buddhism lies in the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to Enlightenment. The symbol is the Dharma Wheel (wheel of life) which has eight spokes, signifying each of the steps in the Eightfold path.
Buddhism is sustained by its threefold commitment: "I take refuge in the Buddha (the founder), I take refuge in the Dharma (his teachings), I take refuge in the Sangha (the organization of monks and nuns)."
For more information see the Buddhism page on the Creating Interfaith Community mission study web site.
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Castes - Social divisions created by the Aryans who were acutely conscious of racial superiority. The Aryans divided society into four major castes based on colors or Varnas (Var NASS). Following this division, a new set of ideas about human purity and pollution came into social existence.
According to a hymn called "Purusasukta" in the Rig Veda, four castes were created from God's own body:
- The Brahmin, priestly class, was created from God's mouth
- The Kshatriya, warriors and rulers, were created from God's arms
- The Vaishyas, traders and crafts people, were created from God's thighs
- The Shudra, those who serve the other three castes, were created from God's feet
See also Dalit.
Dalit - The word comes from the Sanskrit word dal which means "broken," a name willingly assumed by the six million Dalits in India to protest their historically down-trodden condition.
These "untouchables," who were not part of the four-fold division of people into castes and therefore not even considered part of the body of God, were assigned to tasks considered menial in the Indian subcontinent - leaning and removing dirt and human waste, tanning animal skins, and so on.
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Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) - Gandhi advocated non-violent civil disobedience to combat injustice. He intentionally used the religion and history of his period for positive and harmonious living and liberation from oppression. Though the base of his spirituality came principally from Hindu scriptures, he incorporated other scriptural truths for the cause of peace and non-violence.
In his copy of the Hindu scripture, the Baghavat Gita (a warrior text embedded in Mahabharata), he wrote that "perfect renunciation" was impossible without "perfect observance of ahimsa (non-violence) in every shape and form."
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, a small town on the western coast of India, which was then one of the many tiny states in Kathiawar. He was born in middle class family of Vaishya caste.
Mahatma Gandhi was a leader and a friend to all throughout his life. He dedicated his life to fostering the philosophy of nonviolent action, and spreading this concept throughout the world. He struggled to find freedom for his countrymen and to spread his belief in nonviolent resistance. Given the name Mahatma, meaning "great soul," he spread his message across the globe.
- Portions of this text are from "Gandhi's Life in 5,000 Words" and the biography at the M.K. Gandhi Institute for Nonviolence.
To learn more about Gandhi, see the following web sites:
- The Official Mahatma Gandhi eArchive and Reference Library - from the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation, India
- Mahatma Gandhi - a collection of the works, life, teachings, and philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi by Gandhian Institute Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal
- Gandhi's Life in 5,000 Words - from the book, Mahatma Gandhi: His Life In Pictures
- M.K. Gandhi Institute for Nonviolence - founded in 1991 by the grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, Arun Gandhi, and his wife Sunanda
Hindu (HIN doo) - A person who follows or adheres to the teachings of Hinduism.
Hinduism - A philosophy or way of life with roots in India. The Hindu tradition is more a way of life than a set of beliefs. Hindus have many different practices that vary from country to country, even from community to community.
Most Hindus believe that the whole universe is permeated with the Divine, a reality called the Brahman. This Divine can be known by many names and take many forms, and it is fully present in the human soul.
Hindus believe there is one God and that God can take many forms, expressed as gods and goddesses. For example:
- Brahma is Creator
- Vishnu is Sustainer
- Shiva is Destroyer
For more information see the Hinduism page on the Creating Interfaith Community mission study web site.
Hindutva (Hin DUT vaa) - An extremist Hindu movement, not to be confused with Hinduism.
Hindutva claims an identity called Hindu-ness, while Hinduism is a religion.
Hindutva can be described as Hindu religious sectarianism or Hindu nationalism. It is a "Cultural Nationalism," to which Indian people are required to subscribe preferably under Hindu dictatorship. In this argument, Christians and Muslims are portrayed as the "other."
Exploited by extremists, Hindutva has been an ideological and political weapon against minority religious groups.
I-J
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India - The Republic of India has twenty-seven states and seven Union Territories with its capital in New Delhi.
The name India is derived from the river Indus.
Hindus are a majority in India with about 81 percent of the people. Muslims comprise about 12 percent of the population, Christians about three percent, and Sikhs about two percent. Other minority groups include Buddhist, Jain, and Parsi.
The flag consists of three equal horizontal bands of saffron (top), white, and green with a blue Dharma Chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band. The saffron (a sacred color of Hinduism) stands for courage and sacrifice; the white, for purity and truth; the green for growth and auspiciousness. The wheel represents the dynamism of a peaceful change.
- Map, flag, and flag description are from The World Factbook. Additional flag description from Flags of the World.
Islam - The Arabic word Islam means the submission or surrender of one's will to the one true God worthy of worship. Anyone who adheres to this ideal is called a Muslim.
Muslims believe that Islam is the one true religion given to Adam and to all the prophets after him.
Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad, an Arab and a descendant of Abraham, who received the divine revelations of Allah contained in the Muslim scriptures, the Holy Qu'ran [Koran]. The Qu'ran names twenty-five messengers of God, including Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Moses, and Jesus. Muhammad is believed to be the final messenger until the Day of Judgment.
The practice of Islam includes the five pillars of the faith:
- Profession of faith in the one God and in Muhammad as his Prophet
- Prayer five times a day
- The giving of alms to the poor
- Fasting during the month of Ramadan
- The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca
Ninety-seven percent of Pakistanis are followers of this religion.
For more information see the Islam page on the Creating Interfaith Community mission study web site.
Jainism - Originated as a protest to Hinduism. Today, there are about four million followers of Jainism in India.
Jainism teaches that Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct will lead to salvation. Right Conduct includes non-violence (ahimsa), truth telling, abstention from theft, abstention from greed, and the practice of sexual purity.
Jainism does not believe in the existence of God. A liberated soul, a prophet, is a god. Every soul is potentially divine.
For more information see the Jainism page on the Creating Interfaith Community mission study web site.
E. Stanley Jones (1884-1973) - Missionary, evangelist, and theologian.
Jones was called to missionary service in India in 1907 through the Board of Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He began his work among the members of the very low castes and the outcasts and also spoke often with members of the high castes and in universities. He did not attack Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, or any Indian religion. He presented the Gospel of Jesus Christ, disentangled from western systems and cultures, and their sometimes non-Christian expressions.
He pioneered "The Round Table" for open discussion among the leaders of pluralistic religious faiths in India, helped reestablish the Indian Ashram and reconstituted the Ashram with Christian disciplines.
Jones is the author of The Christ of the Indian Road, Christ at the Round Table, Gandhi: Portrayal of a Friend, and many other books.
- Portions of the text are from "Missionary Extraordinary" on the United Christian Ashrams web site.
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Karma (kar MAA) - A Hindu concept that one's deeds in this life determines one's future birth.
The Law of Karma, the weighing scale of good and evil, determines how many lives one is bound to live and what forms of life one has to take on.
Kashmir - An area on the northern borders of India and Pakistan; officially known as Jammu and Kashmir.
Kashmir is famous for its natural beauty and has often been referred to as the "Switzerland of the East." The heart of the area is the fertile Vale of Kashmir (known as The Valley), which lies between the Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range. Here the climate is mild and the soil well watered. The Indus river flows through Kashmir.
About 12 million people live in Kashmir, most of whom (about seventy percent) are Muslims. The rest include Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists. Hindus live mostly in the south and around the city of Jammu. To the east is the Ladakh region, where the majority of the people are Buddhists and of Tibetan origin. Most of the Kashmiri people work on farms. Others are engaged in small industries making shawls, rugs and carpets. Kashmir is well known for its wool and, in particular, its shawls and carpets.
Much of the farmland is under intense cultivation, producing corn, wheat, rice and saffron amongst other crops. Fruit and nuts are also produced in quantities including pears, apples and walnuts.
Kashmir has been the key to the dispute between India and Pakistan since their independence from the British in 1947. Each country claims Kashmir as a part of its territory. As a result of a rebellion in 1947 and the subsequent wars between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, the area is separated by a Line-of-Control (LOC or cease-fire line), seen on the map as the dotted gray line between the green and orange areas. To the east of the LOC lies the vale of Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh which are administered by India. To the west lies the area now known as Azad (Free) Kashmir or the Northern Areas which is governed by its own government with strong ties with Pakistan. Aksai Chin is held by China and claimed by India.
The capitals of Indian-held Kashmir are Srinagar in the summer and Jammu in the winter; the capital of Azad Kashmir (Northern Areas) is Muzaffarabad.
- Portions of the text about Kashmir are from the Jammu and Kashmir web site, a part of the Muslim Directory. Map based on South Asia Map (PDF) from the United Nations and map of Kashmir Region from CIA web site; color added. For a more detailed history of Kashmir, see Chapter 3 of the India and Pakistan study guide and the web resources page of this web site.
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Moksha (Mok SHAA) - Liberation. The Hindu concept of salvation, which comes through the merger of the human soul (Atman) with the World Soul (Brahman). Before such a union takes place, the human soul has to go through reincarnation, an endless cycle of existence and rebirths.
Namaste (Na ma stay) - Traditional Indian greeting, said while holding one's hands pressed together near the heart and head gently bowed.
In Sanskrit, Namas means "bow," a reverential salutation. Te means "to you." Namaste means "I bow to you."
This is both a spoken greeting and a gesture, a Mantr(a) and a Mudr(a). The prayerful hand position is called Anjali, meaning "to honor."
Nirvana - A Hindu concept of God-realization, self-realization, or illumination of the consciousness.
Pakistan - The Islamic Republic of Pakistan, with Islamabad as its capital, has four provinces: the Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, and North West Frontier Province. The Northern areas bordering China and Afghanistan are also federally administered by Pakistan.
The name Pakistan was coined by some of the Muslim students in Cambridge University in England who envisioned a consolidated nation state created from Punjab, Afghan Province, Kashmir, Sindh, and BaluchisTAN.
Ninety-six percent of the people of Pakistan are Muslims, about three percent are Christians, and one percent other minorities.
The flag is green with a vertical white band (symbolizing the role of religious minorities) on the hoist side; a large white crescent and star are centered in the green field; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam.
- Map, flag, and flag description are from The World Factbook.